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| Assembly Evolution (1/7) | ||
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| Published: May.23.2006 @ 9:38 am | Last edited: Jul.29.2006 @ 5:40 am | ||
I originally published this article under the title, “Changes in Assembly Work Environments” in the book “Programmable Assembly”, ISBN 0.903608.65.0.
The role of the modern assembly worker is very different now from that
of 3 generations ago. Improvements in parts quality consistency has
eliminated the previously required skill of the apprentice trained
fitter. A new breed of unskilled assembly workers has been created,
through the division of labour, to carry out repetitive and mundane
tasks. However, many companies use assembly automation if it can
be economically justified, and after the product has been re-designed
for automatic assembly.The development of modern assembly techniques is discussed, together with future trends in manual and automatic assembly. Emphasis is given to the changing needs of the people directly involved in these assembly operations. Introduction There has been a rapid increase in living standards in the developed nations throughout the previous century, mostly due to the application of technology to manufacturing. The mass production of goods has made many items available at economic prices. Homemakers now have a multitude of labour saving devices to reduce the amount of time spent on household chores. This has enabled many homemakers to work in factories which produce these goods. Assembly workers can master a simple assembly task and repeat it for more than 1000 times per day; every day. Working with other people on an assembly line can create a sense of cooperation within a joint effort. However, there has been criticism of the assembly line technique. It is argued that the repetitive work is boring and tedious and that workers no longer gain satisfaction from doing their job. Workers never see the finished product and the continual repetition of movements creates boredom. Industrial unrest in high volume manufacturing companies has been associated with the job dissatisfaction of assembly line workers. Manufacturers now realise that the economic benefits of the division of labour have to be judged alongside the sociological and psychological disadvantages. The use of assembly automation during product manufacture eliminates worker dissatisfaction with repetitive work, since most of the mundane tasks are done by machines. Workers are then used to fill magazines/feeders and to maintain the equipment. The reduced labour content often creates a cost reduction in the finished goods. The culmination of this desirable process is an increase in leisure time, through a reduction in the working week. Emphasis must then be placed on how people are to spend their leisure time. This should be the subject of major reform in our training establishments. |
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| Assembly Evolution (2/7) | ||
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| Published: May.22.2006 @ 9:20 am | Last edited: Jul.29.2006 @ 5:50 am | ||
| Technology Technology is the systematic knowledge of the industrial arts. Industrial engineers have been applying technology to the workplace for over two centuries. Manufacturing systems analysed by method and time studies have been improved by the division of labour, automation and robotics. Large productivity improvements have been achieved by applying technology to manufacturing processes. From the mechanisation of flour production to the robotic assembly of vehicles, process costs have been reduced. The application of technology to the motor industry has resulted in vast increases in productivity. 
Method study is concerned with the dissection of a complex operation
into it’s single constituent parts, which are then systematically
analysed. The method study engineer synthesises the complete operation
using components which optimise factors such as symmetry and the rhythm
of movement.
The time study engineer measures the time taken to carry out an
operation. The analysis is carried out in a systematic manner and it
makes this form of study suitable only for simple and repetitive tasks.
Often, time study exposes inefficient operations and these can then be
analysed using method study.It was the use of both method and time studies that led to the wide-scale use of the division of labour and the creation of the assembly line concept. Workers grouped on lines achieve productivity levels many times greater than single operatives making the entire product. Automation has also produced large productivity increases by replacing men with machines. In highly automated manufacturing plants, the operator controls and supervises the process. The main power olders in future societies will not be capitalists or socialists, but people who possess expert technological skills. In this way, power will be passed to the techno-structure. Automation Automation in the manufacturing industries covers a whole range of electrical and mechanical equipment. In the field of automatic assembly, devices are used for automatic feeding and insertion. In addition, work transfer is by conveyor or rotating table. The type of system used for the assembly of a product is dependent upon many factors. The local cost of labour affects the economic justification of using automation to replace that labour. The frequency of design changes and the number of product styles dictate how flexible the equipment needs to be. The market life of the product influences the amortisation period of the capital investment. Finally, the annual product volume determines the required cycle time. In addition to the above economic considerations, another reason for employing automatic assembly may be one of necessity. In certain areas, where labour is scarce, the use of automatic assembly is imperative. Certain operations may be hazardous or they must take place in dangerous working conditions. For example, the handling of toxic chemicals or working in extreme temperature conditions may exclude the use of manual workers. A further reason may be associated with the scheduling of the assembly operations: better control over production can be achieved with automation and product quality will be more consistent. |
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| Assembly Evolution (3/7) | ||
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| Published: May.21.2006 @ 12:53 pm | Last edited: Jul.29.2006 @ 5:51 am | ||
| The assembly operation consists of the two basic activities of handling
and insertion. If a product is to be assembled automatically then
thought has to be given to the economics of these activities. The
automatic feeding of simple parts is usually carried out using a
vibratory bowl feeder. Components in bulk random orientation are placed
into the feeder and the parts are presented to the workhead in an
ordered manner. Difficult parts may be fed by special feeders, hoppers
or by magazines. The insertion process is defined as being the action
where one part is assembled to another part, or group of parts. High
speed operations, where the same parts are inserted for long periods of
time, are normally effected by standard pick-and place units. Difficult
operations, involving the assembly of a number of different parts with
different operations may require assembly robots. The flexibility
of the robot is created by using computer programs to control the robot
arm movements. The difference between a robot and a pick-and-place is
that the path of the robot arm is not restricted by mechanical means,
whereas pick-and-place units rely upon mechanical stops to determine
the path they follow. Division of labour 
The division of labour is the process whereby one complex operation is
broken down into a number of simpler tasks. These single tasks are
carried out using a series of people, each doing one task. In this
manner, a complex task performed by one worker is replaced by a number
of workers operating in series. This allows operations to be carried
out simultaneously, instead of the single operator having to complete
one task before commencing another, different task. Unskilled workers
can then be used to carry out these simple operations and they soon
become efficient at the particular task.Assembly systems An assembly method can be classified into one of six types, and most systems may contain a number of different methods. The traditional form of assembly is manual and, for high volume production, the workers are arranged on an assembly line. Other forms of manual assembly include a single worker assembling a complete product and groups of workers assembling a portion of the product. When the range of products is more limited, a manual assisted method can be used, whereby workers are assisted by mechanical devices, such as parts feeders. The feeders present the parts to the assembly worker in an ordered manner. The assembly time is reduced by eliminating the time taken to separate the parts from bulk random orientation. The third form of assembly uses automatic indexing assembly machines. A rotary or in-line machine has a number of workstations with automatic feeders which supply components to workheads for assembly of the part to the fixture, or part-built assembly. The workstations are 'special-purpose' and are dedicated to the assembly of one product only. Production volumes need to be high for the economic justification of these machines. Component quality must also be high to avoid excessive workstation downtime, caused by jamming, etc. |
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| Assembly Evolution (4/7) | ||
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| Published: May.20.2006 @ 5:37 pm | Last edited: Jul.29.2006 @ 5:55 am | ||
| The efficiency of an automatic free-flow assembly machine is less
dependent on parts quality. The transfer of work pieces between each
workstation is non-synchronous. Small buffer stocks are held between
each workstation and the other workstations still operate even if one
is stopped because of a fault, e.g. a defective part jammed in the
escapement mechanism. The programmable automatic assembly machine has a non-synchronous transfer line with a series of programmable or robotic workstations to assemble components. Parts are presented to the workheads by automatic feeders or, in the case of difficult components, magazines may be used. The workheads can execute one or a number of operations. Flexibility is acheived by using different programs for each product to be assembled. The final type of assembly system is robotic assembly and it is used for the assembly of products manufactured in low production volumes. This method can also be used when there is large product variety. Work transfer is not by conveyor, as all the assembly operations are carried out by a single robot. Transfer of the completed sub-assembly onto the next operation may also be done by the same robot. The direct labour content in assembly is reduced in the progression from manual assembly to robotic assembly. However, the complexity of the equipment increases as workers are replaced by machines. Indirect labour also increases for the maintenance and computer control of the equipment. Economic aspects The application of technology to manufacturing is used to increase productivity and the selection of a system for the economic assembly of a product depends upon a number of factors. The final selection must take into account the following: 
- Market life of product - influences the decision of the company on
investing in capital equipment. Products with short market lives are
usually assembled manually.- Variations in demand - Automatic assembly machines are designed to operate with fixed cycle times. Low demand leads to increasing stock levels or the machine has to be stopped. Both of these actions are expensive. Flexibility to assemble different types of products is needed if there are large demand variations. This flexibility can only be provided by manual assembly or programmable machines. - Parts quality- Automatic assembly machines are intolerant of defective parts and they can cause a station to breakdown. Whilst inter-station buffers will reduce the effect on efficiency, manual assembly is necessary for products that use low quality parts. - Number of products - to be assembled by a system determines how flexible it needs to be. Different products manufactured in high volumes can be assembled using programmable workheads. Smaller volumes require manual assembly. - Major design changes - Products subject to frequent design changes need flexible assembly systems, in a similar way to systems used to assemble a variety of products. |
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| Assembly Evolution (5/7) | ||
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| Published: May.19.2006 @ 12:57 pm | Last edited: Jul.29.2006 @ 5:56 am | ||
 - Company investment potential - Assembly system selection is
influenced by the company's policy towards investing in automation.
If the company requires a payback period of less than one year then it
is unlikely that any form of automated assembly system can be
economically justified.- Annual production volume – This determines the cycle time of the system and automatic systems must run continuously to be justified. If the annual volume is low then the product must be assembled manually. - Number of parts – This dictates whether the product should be assembled in a series of simple operations or in a single, complex operation. Automatic indexing machines cannot be used for the assembly of more than 8 parts on a single machine. The downtime caused by defective parts rapidly increases for every part above this value. Free-flow transfer should be used for products containing a large number of parts. Social aspects The application of technology to the assembly environment has sociological and psychological effects. The economic advantages of certain assembly systems can produce serious social disadvantages. These social effects are not limited to the confines of the factory and they affect the whole of society. Assembly line work can provide jobs for people challenged with limited abilities. They can soon acquire a skill for a specific task and take pride in doing a job that may seem uninteresting to other people. Working with others on an assembly line often brings a worthwhile feeling of cooperation in producing goods required by society. Some people enjoy the fact that they can start a job and, with minimal training, soon be earning a bonus on piece-rate assembly lines. A highly specialised assembly task, requiring little dexterity, gives this opportunity. The correct candidate can be selected for an assembly line job by using aptitude and vocational tests. There is scope for job rotation and managers can circulate workers so that they don’t have to do the same operation for long periods. Job rotation also gives the manager with a labour force able to do many operations. This is beneficial to the company when there is a high rate of absenteeism. The assembly line workers soon adopt a rhythm of working, as they do not have to set aside one tool to pick up another. 
Many assembly line workers don’t want to use mental effort and choose
not to accept responsibility in a job. They prefer to execute a task
that allows them to simultaneously talk with their colleagues and
listen to music. The workers are also able to take advantage of the
reduced selling price of goods assembled by the flow-line method,
available in high street stores. They can buy goods that would normally
be outside their budget, were it not for the division of labour. Low
priced home appliances like washing machines and vacuum cleaners reduce
the amount of time required to do work around the household. Homemakers
find that they are more available to work on an assembly line, earn
money and to gain companionship in a work environment. |
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| Assembly Evolution (6/7) | ||
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| Published: May.18.2006 @ 11:46 pm | ||
| The social advantages of assembly line work must be considered
alongside the often serious psychological disadvantages. There can be a
loss of job satisfaction when the worker is not involved in all of the
assembly processes that lead to the finished product. The job is
repetitive and some workers are unable to take much pride in the task
itself, as they don’t have the opportunity of seeing how important
their operation is to the successful completion of the product. Boring
work may suppress the creative ability of the worker and their time out
of work may be spent so passively that life goals may disappear. The
effect of carrying out monotonous work is often excessive fatigue. With
the decline in individual craftsmanship, many unskilled operatives have
no opportunity to display their creative talent at work. Goods built on
an assembly line lack the variety that can be created by craftsmen.
This dull product uniformity can have an adverse effect on some workers
who see the same product every 20 seconds or 1350 times a day. Assembly lines are usually installed in factories with a large workforce. Each group within the factory is dependent upon the other for the manufacture of the product. Strike action by one group of workers may affect the production of the whole factory. The assembly worker output is effective only during the time spent doing tasks. The cycle time is fixed by the conveyor speed and so it is the periods of time spent off the job that reduce the output. These psychological problems often cause the assembly worker to create avoidable delays in which they try to gain control of the rate of work. The social effects of automation are different from those of the division of labour. Many of the simple operations carried out by assembly workers can be substituted with automatic workstations. By replacing workers with automation, these repetitive tasks are executed by machines. The displaced workers are then available to carry out other, less tedious, tasks like supervision and inspection. The automatic assembly machines must be fully utilised to be economically justified. Dedicated automatic assembly machines are less flexible than manual assembly lines. The products must be assembled in large batch sizes. Overproduction and under-consumption lead to inefficiency. Severe demand fluctuations and gross lack of demand can’t be accommodated with assembly automation. Behavioural scientists say that technology can be applied to assembly without employing automation. They believe in job enlargement/enrichment and argue that the division of labour has been taken too far, to produce boring and repetitive assembly line jobs. Job enlargement increases the number of tasks completed by a single operator and this is intended to give more interest and variety to the job. The same grade of worker does more complex operations. The net effect of job enlargement is a reduction in the number of operators per assembly line, an increase the cycle time and more flexibility, but an overall increase in assembly costs. |
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| Assembly Evolution (7/7) | ||
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| Published: May.17.2006 @ 11:37 am | Last edited: May.17.2006 @ 4:41 am | ||
 Job enrichment increases the responsibility of the assembly worker by
giving more opportunity to make decisions. If the responsibility of the
assembly worker is increased then it is anticipated that the feeling of
job fulfilment will also be increased. Job enrichment, by the strictest
definition, is more easily applied to skilled or semi-skilled
employees. Nevertheless, forms of job enrichment have been
applied to assembly workers in car factories and electrical companies
with some success.There are many critics of the theories of job enrichment and job enlargement. The trade unionist view of these ideas is that the workers are misled into participation and into accepting leadership, whilst the 'conflict' between the workers and management remains unchanged. Others claim that the nature of the work is only one of the many factors contributing to the attitude of workers towards their jobs. It is the nature of the job itself, that enrichment theorists believe is the difference between satisfied and dissatisfied workers. By changing the nature of the job, social attitude will also change. Others claim that the nature of the work is not the top priority and other factors such as; pay, working conditions, job security and the attitude of the supervisors must also be considered. Assembly workers have individual preferences for the nature of the job. Some prefer routine work, whilst others enjoy performing complex tasks. Many workers purposefully don’t choose the job that they would most enjoy, in return for higher pay. Others, in periods of high unemployment, necessarily accept any paying job to financially support themselves and their families. The future Globalization and “offshoring” has transferred assembly work jobs from the developed nations to the developing nations to achieve lower assembly costs. It was believed by most, a few decades ago, that the displacement of assembly workers would result from the domestic implementation of assembly automation. It was not foreseen that developing nations’ infrastructure improvements, lowered trade barriers, foreign direct investment encouragement and lower logistics costs would cause the transfer of domestic assembly jobs to overseas locations. However, the economic benefit of “offshoring” assembly work is now being eroded by higher wage demands in the developing nations, higher logistics prices, copyright infringements and the lower cost of assembly automation. Assembly automation reduces the cost of producing goods domestically and the availability of goods at economic prices creates a higher standard of living. The lower labour content in producing goods leads to a shorter working week. The greater availability of human resources, if used wisely, should be available to achieve a better quality of life for all. |
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